By Amber Strong Makaiau
He was Hawai‘i’s first progressive educator.
-Benjamin Wist writes of H.S. Townsend (1937)
In this blog, I aim to share more about Henry Schuller (H.S.) Townsend. He was one of Hawai‘i’s leading American progressive educators who was “expected to be appointed the first superintendent of public instruction as soon as the territorial government was established” (Hunt, 1969, p. 297), but who was ousted from the position in 1900 because of the “aggressive Americanization campaign…[implemented in the] territory’s public schools” (Americanization through the school system, 2023). I was first introduced to Townsend while researching the chronology of public education leadership in Hawai‘i during the Kingdom, Republic, and Territorial time periods (see the chart below).
Public Education Leadership in Hawai‘i
Kingdom, Republic, and Territorial Time Periods
David Malo, Superintendent/Minister of Public Instruction for the Kingdom (1841 - 1847) – the Organic Law passed in 1845 established a Minister of Public Instruction as the head education authority (Hunt, 1969, p. 293)
William Richards, Minister of Public Instruction (1847)
Keoni Ana (John Young, Jr.), Minister of Public Instruction (1847)
Richard Armstrong, Minister of Public Instruction and Board of Education President (1847 - 1860) - in 1855 the Ministry of Public Education was abolished and the Board of Education was established as the lead education authority and Armstrong was appointed Board President (Hunt, 1969, p.295)
Mataio Kekuanaoa, Board of Education President (1860 - 1869)/Abraham Fornander, Inspector General of Schools (1865 - 1869) - in addition to the Board of Education as a lead governing body, a head professional educator was now appointed as the Inspector General of Schools (Hunt, 1969, p. 295)
William P. Kamakau, Board of Education President (1869 - 1872)/Rexford Hitchcock, Inspector General of Schools (1869 -1877)
Charles Reed Bishop, Board of Education President (1872 - 1883)/Rexford Hitchcock, Inspector General of Schools (1869 - 1877)
Charles Reed Bishop, Board of Education President (1872 - 1883)/D. Dwight Baldwin, Inspector General of Schools (1877- 1887) – it is unknown to this author as to who served as board of education president between 1883 and 1886
Charles Reed Bishop, Board of Education President (1886 - 1891)/Alatau Atkinson, Inspector General of Schools (1886 - 1896) – during the illegal overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy the Board of Education was restructured and the Minister of the Interior served as the Board President (Hunt, 1969, p. 297)
Henry E. Cooper, Minister of the Interior and Board of Education President (1896-1899)/H.S. Townsend, Inspector General of Schools (1896 - 1900) – “On April 27, 1900, the Congress of the United States passed the Organic Act formally approving of Hawai‘i’s status as a territory…Section 27 stated ‘that there shall be a superintendent of public instruction…’ (Hunt, 1969, p. 297).
Alatau Atkinson, Superintendent of Public Instruction (1900 - 1905)
As the list above alludes, “public education in Hawai‘i was inaugurated in 1840 by the passage of the first school laws on October 15 of that year. These laws were corollary to the first Hawaiian constitution promulgated by King Kamehameha III” (Wist, 1940, p. 2). The laws required that all children ages four through fourteen would attend public schools, the schools would be established in communities with more than fifteen children, land for the schools would be provided by the Hawaiian government, and parents would be fined if they did not send their children to school (Hunt, 1969, p.292). “This provided the basis for an American school system established long before many existed on the mainland” (Hunt,1969, p. 292). While some of the school governance leaders depicted above “sought to restrict Native Hawaiian access to certain schools,” it is noted that “under the guidance of H.S. Townsend, who replaced Alatau Atkinson in 1895, the schools began to champion a progressive education system” (Benham, 1998, p. 129). With further research I found that, for the most part, Townsend’s progressive public schools system was inclusive, innovative, science-driven, forward thinking, and on the cutting edge of educational programing and research.
In the paragraphs to follow I elaborate on what I learned about Townsend’s contributions to the progressive education movement in Hawai‘i and beyond. This includes: providing excerpts from both Townsend’s writing and the handful of scholars who have documented his accomplishments; sharing more about my trip to the Hawaiian Historical Society to uncover the only remaining copies of the Progressive Educator periodical that Townsend published during his tenure as inspector general; and reflecting on Townsend’s larger than life personality, including what progressive educators of today might take away from Townsend’s leadership and eventual “undoing” (Benham, 1998, p. 129).
H.S. Townsend and Progressive Education in Hawai‘i
My journey to learn more about H.S. Townsend began with an unpublished manuscript written by H.S. Townsend and edited by Benjamin Wist titled, “Hawai‘i Education in the ‘Nineties.” It was written on a typewriter by Townsend (I presume), and edited with a pencil by Wist. A one-of-a-kind document, this manuscript now lives in the Hawaiian & Pacific Collection (a body of rare books and archival material, which can only be viewed onsite) at the University of Hawai‘i, Mānoa’s Hamilton Library. To access the manuscript, I made a number of special trips to the fifth floor of Hamilton, checked in my bag and other personal belongings, and spent time with the original document to learn more about this legend and key figure in the history of progressive education in Hawai‘i.
The manuscript begins with a thoughtful and personal introduction by Wist. A former public school teacher in the islands, Wist is best known for his service as the president of the Territorial Normal and Training School (1921 - 1930) and then the first dean of the University of Hawai‘i Teachers College. He writes, “When [I] first began teaching in Hawai‘i in 1911..[I]... occasionally heard of the name [H.S. Townsend]. The impression received was that this former educational leader was a visionary whose philosophy of education was too idealistic for the development of a system of public education in terms of American theory and practice” (p.1). He shares how Townsend was well known for his positions as Principal of Lahainaluna School and Inspector General of Schools (referenced in the chart above), but that little was known (in 1937) about “his philosophy and the events which preceded his departure” (p. 1). Wist was a scholar who was deeply interested in researching the history of education in Hawai‘i, particularly the period preceding Annexation. He had found that the name “Townsend appeared constantly in the source materials” and that “it was evident that here was not just another school administrator, but one with convictions, willing to fight for these regardless of consequences” (Wist in Townsend, 1937, p.1). At the end of his introduction to the manuscript, Wist writes, Townsend was “in advance” of his time (e.g. calling on teachers to educate the “whole child” in the 1890’s, way before this idea was popular) and that from 1881 to 1901, Townsend “did much to lay the foundations for progressive education in Hawai‘i.” He went on to say, “had he remained at the head of the Territorial system of public schools for the early years immediately subsequent to annexation there is every reason to believe the standard of educational efficiency would be even higher than it is today” (Wist in Townsend, 1937, p.2). Directly following Wist’s introduction, the manuscript written by H.S. Townsend gives a candid narrative of his upbringing and educational career in Hawai‘i.
H.S. Townsend was born and raised on a series of farms in south-central Iowa. He spent much of his childhood working on the farm, learning from “experience” (Townsend, 1937, p.11). He also attended a rural multiage schoolhouse through high school and then went on to college. He spent a short bit of time teaching mathematics and Greek, before moving to Hawai‘i in 1881. Once in Hawai‘i, Townsend writes: “[I got] mixed up with the primary work [K-12 teaching in general], and so under the influence of Col. Parker and the Quincy Movement…I soon became [an] advocate of ‘realism’ over against ‘formalism’...This view I was enabled to realize upon as Principal of Lihue School, 1883-1886…Then I had four years of Private school work, first in Hilo Boarding School and then in Kamehameha School” (Townsend, 1937, p. 17). Townsend continued on the pathway of school leadership becoming the Vice Principal of Kamehameha School from 1888 - 1890, and then was appointed to be the Principal of Lahainaluna School on Maui.
When he stepped into the position at Lahainaluna, there had been talk of closing the school because it had gone into a bit of disrepair (both pedagogically and structurally), but Townsend was resolved to make improvements. He describes starting the work with teachers at Lahainaluna, implementing a more progressive philosophy and pedagogy. For example, in the areas of math, science, and history he collaborated with the teachers to find ways they could move away from rote memorization by putting “thought as well as memory to work.” He believed “the thought of pupils [should come] first, and [be] subject to reasoning checked” by experts and source materials from each field (Townsend, 1937, p. 28). This was a major shift from the common practice of the time, which typically valued memorization of content, rather than teaching students how to think.
He also went to great lengths to describe an astronomy class he taught using a more progressive philosophy and pedagogy. This incorporated studying “the heavens” at night, outdoors, observing the changing moon in line with a “Plane of the Ecliptic” to make predictions about future celestial phenomena using physics and mathematical calculations (pp. 24 - 25). Additionally, he shared about the integrated carpentry and mechanical drawing program he incorporated into the school curriculum so the students could develop the skills necessary for repairing the dilapidated buildings on campus. The school community began to flourish, and eventually Townsend’s positive changes were recognized by the Inspector General of Schools, and the talk of shutting Lahainaluna down was extinguished.
While at Lahainaluna, it is clear Townsend was continuing to grow as a progressive educator. Interested in finding opportunities for professional development, Townsend applied and was selected to take courses or “correspondence work with a few students of suitable qualifications” (p.25) from the School of Education of New York University. As a part of this process, his outstanding merit and record of accomplishments was recognized by the dean of the university. In addition to furthering his academic and scholarly growth, he was also interested in learning how he could better prepare Lahainaluna students as draftsmen (a popular line of work at the time). Therefore, he reached out to a tinsmith shop in Honolulu to see if he could intern there to learn the trade. About this endeavor, Wist made the following comment in one of the manuscript’s footnotes: “to teachers who complain that they cannot teach some particular thing because they have neer had a course in it...A true progressive apparently senses the need and goes after the specific knowledge and training necessary to meet the need. Although it may be granted that not all persons are as versatile of interests, knowledge and skills as was Townsend, it is the editor’s judgment that most of us are potentially far more versatile than we give ourselves credit” (p.26). Along with Wist’s comments, many examples in the manuscript illustrate the extent to which Townsend perpetually modeled the qualities of a progressive educator, including his ongoing engagement in professional development to improve upon his professional practice and leadership.
Another notable accomplishment during Townsend’s time at Lahainaluna was related to his work to resurrect the school’s printing press and printing operation.
When the first missionaries arrived in Lahaina in 1823, they stressed to the ali‘i of Hawai‘i the importance of education and literacy for their people, and a seed was planted. By 1831, Lahainaluna Seminary was established, becoming the first secondary school west of the Rockies. Lahainaluna survives today as Lahaina’s public high school. On its campus is Hale Pa‘i, the House of Printing. School records tell us that in 1834, an old Ramage Press was shipped from Honolulu and installed on campus in a small thatched-roof hut. Students were taught how to set type, operate the press, create copper engravings and bind books. Textbooks and teaching aids were created and continually improved. The original press printed the first newspaper published west of the Rocky Mountains on February 14, 1834. It was a four-page weekly called “Ka Lama Hawaii”. (The Lahaina Restoration Foundation, 2023)
By the time Towsnend arrived at Lahainaluna School in the early 1890’s, the Hale Pa‘i was in disrepair and no longer being used as an integrated part of the school program and curriculum.
Motivated by a strong desire to share what he was learning about progressive education with other educators and to ensure all children in Hawai‘i could have access to a progressive education, Townsend went to work fixing the printing press so the school could publish and distribute a progressive education professional development newspaper. He describes having enough letters, a composing stick, and two cases, all of which could be used to make a monthly magazine that would be two business letter pages long. He wrote,
These I set up, and then turned to the problem of the title. I found suitable type in a much broken font, and began setting up PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION, but was stalled with the discovery that it was a one-I font; so I had to change to EDUCATOR. Then without any intention to imply that there was only one Progressive educator, but simply to make the name completer, I prefixed in smaller type the word The, and so I had THE PROGRESSIVE EDUCATOR. (Townsend, 1937, p. 30)
This is how The Progressive Educator newspaper–distributed locally and nationally from 1894-1899–was born. More about this significant publication to come!
In the years to follow–based on his success at Lahainaluna–H.S. Townsend was recommended to apply and eventually accepted the top job of Inspector General of Schools in the islands. In this position, he was able to achieve many notable accomplishments. This included: (1) spreading progressive education principles and practice in Hawai‘i via his publications (e.g. The Progressive Educator); (2) formalizing the practice of public education teachers’ reading circles, which allowed teachers to socially construct their understanding of the materials presented in the publication and deepen their understanding of progressive philosophy and pedagogy; (3) working with teachers to establish a program of study, which included creating curricular materials to structure the scope and sequence of educational programing across the system; (4) organizing networked teachers associations; (5) applying the scientific method to study and research important systems issues (e.g. problems encountered by rural schools) and then applying the research to make organizational change (e.g. creating deputy inspector generals across the islands to support rural schools); (6) catalyzing university extension lectures to grow the presence of advanced educational scholarship and practice; and (7) facilitating a number of extremely popular teacher professional development programs (e.g. summer schools for teachers, a lecture series, and a string of prominent visiting scholars).
Some of this work is documented by Hunter McEwan (2015) in a publication about John Dewey’s visits to Hawai‘i, which were directly tied to a number of Townsend’s key initiatives:
Dewey’s extension lectures were held in the evenings and the teachers’ summer school in the daytime at the same location, Honolulu High School (p.3)...Townsend helped to organize [the] series of summer schools for teachers. Although they ran for only four years, from 1896 to 1899, the summer schools attracted some major [progressive] educators from the mainland including in 1898, Colonel Francis Parker and wife from the Cook County Normal School. In the following year, at the same time as Dewey’s visit, Frances Cooke and Zonia Barber, also from Cook County Normal School, arrived as visiting lecturers….”. (p. 5)
Ultimately, the accomplishments of Townsend during this particular time period did much to promote progressive education in Hawai‘i, integrating progressive education within and across the public school system. Townsend also put Hawai‘i on the map as a leader in the emerging American progressive education movement. In retrospect, it is quite remarkable to imagine that this might have been the only time in history when an entire nation was recognized by its unified dedication to studying and advancing the principles and practices of progressive education in its public schools. Summarized in Townsend’s own words:
Teachers [in the Hawaiian public school system] are coming to realize that content should underlie form…it is becoming more generally understood that these studies, reading, writing, arithmetic are in no just sense ends in education…It is, perhaps, along these lines that the most noticeable progress has been made in recent years in the ideals of the teacher. But scarcely less noticeable, if really less noticeable, the progress made along the lines of connecting all instruction with experience of those taught…Next to these conceptions, and suggested by them, is the conception that the individual’s mental stock should form an orgasmic whole. Now that the school system of Hawaii takes its place among those of the United States…its place will be one of honor…in educational matters Hawaii will enjoy a fair and honorable degree of leadership. (Townsend, 1899, pp. 162 - 164)
Townsend’s advancement of progressive education in the K-12 school system also laid the groundwork for the establishment of formal and progressive leaning teacher preparation programs and eventually a teacher professional development school. To head the school, Townsend appointed Edgar Wood. “Lawrence Fuchs refers to Wood as continuing Townsend’s tradition of filling the heads of young teachers with progressive ideas (p. 269)–a tradition that Benjamin Wist was to continue after he was appointed to head the normal school in 1921. Townsend’s initial efforts bore fruit and Dewey, who was invited to evaluate the work of the Territorial Normal and Training School, as it was called by 1912, found it to be ‘well to the front in educational ideals’ though he added prophetically and with considerable insight into the local situation that ‘it would probably meet opposition in its development’” (McEwan, 2015, p. 20). Dewey was correct. In addition to making great strides in growing the progressive education movement in Hawai‘i during his tenure as Inspector General of Schools, Townsend also developed a number of adversaries.
Related to this, it is important to note that Townsend served as head educator in the islands during a period defined by intense political upheaval and immense social-cultural change. This included the Hawaiian economy becoming even more intertwined with the U.S. economy, the illegal overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom and coup d'état against Queen Liliʻuokalani, and the eventual annexation of Hawai‘i to the United States. Impacts of this shift in power deeply affected many aspects of society, including Townsend’s thriving and expanding progressive education mission. This is recounted by historian James R. Hunt (1969):
Henry S. Townsend succeeded Alatau Atkinson as inspector general of schools in 1896. Townsend, a man of bursting energies, was not always understood. Often referred to as Hawaii’s first progressive educator, Townsend believed in education that was experience centered. Indeed, Townsend was ahead of his times and aroused the ire of his predecessor, who decried the reforms in his Honolulu Star. Nevertheless, Townsend’s administration was responsible for such notable firsts as starting a periodical called The Progressive Educator, opening the first evening school in Honolulu, holding the first summer school for teachers (John Dewey was invited to conduct a session in 1899), and providing the schools a systemized course of study. There was increased attention to various branches of vocational education and to art and music. On April 27, 1900, the Congress of the United States passed the Organic Act formally approving of Hawaii’s status as a territory and containing the legal basis for this relationship. Section 27 stated “that there shall be a superintendent of public instruction who shall have the powers and perform the duties conferred upon and required of the minister of public instruction by the laws of Hawaii as amended by this Act, and subject to modification by the legislature” (39). Townsend expected to be appointed the first superintendent of public instruction as soon as the territorial government was established. But Atkinson, who had a considerable following among the businessmen and other nonteaching groups, was also eager for the appointment. The majority of the board found Townsend too advanced, and Atkinson stepped into office. (p. 298)
This is the story of Townsend’s ousting. Townsend, who had “provided for the schools the first systematized course of study for general use, outlining the materials to be taught and listing the textual materials to be followed” (Wist, p. 138) was too progressive for the intense Americanization effort that would eventually characterize the landscape of public education at the turn of the 20th century in Hawai‘i (Americanization through the school system, 2023). As Benham (1998) summarizes it, his “efforts to create equal access to educational opportunity would become the root of Townsend’s undoing. The value of equal opportunity was in opposition to the existing social and political norms, which supported a two-class system consisting of the White-foreigner in the superior position and the Hawaiians and Asians (non-Caucasians) in the inferior position” (p. 129). While efforts have been made to revive the progressive education philosophy and pedagogy that was pervasive in the islands during Townsend’s time as lead educator, nothing in our recent history comes close to what Townsend was able to accomplish. In truth, considerable work is still needed if the aim is to ensure that all children have access to high quality, progressive, and socially just teachers and schools in the state. In the section to follow, I wonder: Could a catalyst for change in contemporary times be found in the efforts Townsend made to systematically grow progressive education professional development and movement building via The Progressive Educator newspaper publication?
H.S. Townsend’s THE Progressive Educator Newspaper
As I sifted through the historical record, I found it undeniable that H.S. Townsend was definitively “ahead of his time” and that his publication, The Progressive Educator (1893-1899), is demonstrative of why he deserves the title–Hawai‘i’s avant-garde progressive education leader. To begin with, as Wist points out, “Townsend’s use of the word ‘progressive’ [in the title of the publication] bears mention [because] this term, as a label of an educational movement, was many years in the future” (Townsend, 1937, p. 30). In fact, the Progressive Education Association (established in 1919) did not utilize the term in their flagship publication until 1924. Second, and perhaps more important, the publication and the way it was used to stimulate teacher reading circles in communities across the islands represents Townsend’s deep understanding of how movement building via the professional development of teachers can be used to build better schools and consequently a better future society.
As Townsend reflected on the initial purpose of the publication, he wrote, “it was not my intention to use this little sheet to combat the formalism in the public schools, which had gone to seed, according to my best judgment. It was my intention to devote the paper to the advocacy of realism, and more specifically of reading circles among the teachers and the study of certain books, which from time to time I specified” (Townsend, 1937, p.31). However, after distributing enough copies of The Progressive Educator newspaper each month “to furnish one for every teacher of printed record in the Hawaiian Islands” (p.30), he supplied ample and accessible content for the development of “Teachers’ Reading Clubs in nearly [every] school district” (p.31) across the nation. Wist (1940) elaborates: “Townsend’s paper was sent gratis to all teachers in Hawaii and became the incentive for the formation of reading circles and study groups.” This eventually led to the establishment of “an Island-wide teachers’ association, which had its birth in 1895” (p. 136). As a result, “by the time Townsend became professional head of the Hawaiian educational system, the teachers were ready for the summer schools which were to become the chief interest of the late nineties” (Wist, 1940, p. 136). Townsend’s strategy–providing teachers with stimulating content that was both philosophically and practically relevant to their work in schools–effectively and authentically spread progressive education philosophy and pedagogy across the Hawaiian Islands in meaningful ways. Ultimately, Townsend’s little but mighty newspaper transformed public education in Hawai‘i.
So what exactly did the publication discuss and report on? I uncovered the answer to this question during the number of trips I made to the Hawaiian Historical Society to read and study the only [as far as I know] remaining public copies of The Progressive Educator. Bound in hard covers, the society has preserved 46 original publications of the newspaper, organized into five volumes.
Some examples of the variety of content found in the papers are noted above. This ranged from reports on the governing business of teaching associations, suggested reading circle materials, progressive education news from across the islands and abroad, published work from scholars and researchers, editorials, outlines of possible curricular programs and school schedules, and a number of materials that could be used with students.
To further illustrate the topics, subjects, and themes of the newspaper, I transcribed some of the content from The Progressive Educator Vol. 1 No. 1. This begins with Townsend describing the overall philosophy and purpose of the paper. It then includes a report from the Maui Teachers Association, which describes how the organization went through the process of selecting a “course of study” for the Maui reading circles. Finally, there is a short excerpt from “The Teacher’s Institute,” which provides a summary of a progressive education professional development philosophy–the notion that teachers are scientists and that they can work together to make progress in the “systemic investigation of the foundations of educational work.” The transcription is long, but gives a first hand account of the voice and spirit of the publication.
THE PROGRESSIVE EDUCATOR
Vol.1 No. 1
Lahainaluna, H. I., November, 1894
Mr. Henry S. Townsend is the editor of this paper, and assumes the usual responsibilities for what appears in its columns.
THE PROGRESSIVE EDUCATOR demands that all school work be educative in the strictest sense of the term. Merely teaching pupils to read, write, cipher, etc., however efficiently, will not make them good men and good citizens. The fallacy that the ability to read and write keeps men from crime and the felon’s cell has been dispelled by the modern census taker. Mere intellectual stimulation will not supply the place of moral growth and development. It is claimed by the most advanced school of educational thinkers, led by Professor Rein of the University of Jena, in Germany, and President De Garmo, of Swathmore College, in America, that it is possible so to concentrate educational efforts about the moral being of the child that every exercise of the school, not expecting even the multiplication table, shall have its place and accomplish its part in his ethical development and perfecting. We ask all teachers to give this matter their very serious attention, to the end that all their efforts may be wisely directed by the best of aims. What purpose do you expect your work to accomplish, and what bearing has your ultimate aim upon your work today?
It is not the purpose of this little paper to set forth a complete system of educational theory and practice, but rather to point out those works in which the best educational thought is most clearly set forth by the world’s great educational thinkers, and most approved methods are presented by the masters in the art of teaching, and to advocate and promote their study. In a word, we are devoted to the promotion of professional study among teachers. In this work we shall not enter into any manner of rivalry with any other paper published. We have chosen an untilled field, which we hope to make somewhat productive. We do not expect fame or fortune from this venture; but content ourselves with the moderate hope that our influence may reach into every district of the Hawaiian Islands with a blessing for the children, and that our financial losses may not be greater than we can afford to sustain in such a cause.
[Break in text.]
The Reading Circles
MAUI TEACHERS ASSOCIATION
The annual meeting of the Maui Teachers’ Association was held at Wailuku, Saturday, September 15, 1894. The meeting was called for the purpose of organizing the Association and considering plans for a new year and it was conducted in a somewhat informal manner. The morning session opened with appropriate remarks by the retiring President, Mr. H.S. Townsend. Special emphasis was placed upon the importance of every teacher reaching forward to the highest best, let progression and not retrogression be the aim of every educator. He advised, as a means to this end, a systematic course of study.
….[voting on committee members]
The Association then went into committee of the whole to consider plans for work during the coming year. After a lengthy and free discussion, it was decided that a course of study similar to that already adopted by the Lahaina branch of the Association be adopted for the entire Association, and the Executive Committee was instructed to report such a course in detail….
To the Members of the Maui Teachers’ Association. Ladies and Gentlemen: – Your Executive Committee beg leave to report, according to instruction, a course of study in Principles of Education as follows:
Kellog’s Elementary Psychology. 2. Rooper’s Appreciation. 3. Reinhart’s Outline Principles of Education. 4. McMurray’s How to Conduct the Recitation.
These books were chosen because they are the simplest in their line with which the committee was acquainted. Yet even these will require very earnest work on the part of teachers. Each member should have a complete set of books. Meets for study should be frequent, weekly if possible, and should be conducted as classroom exercises. The leader of each group of teachers should act as teacher, and should be chosen solely with reference to his fitness to teach the Principles of Education.
Your committee are of the opinion that this is the only method by which good results of this course can be secured to a large number of teachers. The particle bearing of the Principles of Education is pointed out many times in these books, and the thoughtful teacher can hardly fail to find many opportunities of applying them in the school room.
For those wishing to pursue a more thorough course of study in this line we recommend Allen’s Mind Studies for Young Teachers, Rein’s Outlines of Pedagogics, Lange’s Appreciation, DeGarmo’s Essentials of Method, Parker’s Talks on Pedagogics, and Parker’s Talks on Teaching.
Your Committee also most urgently recommended the systematic study of the minds of all the children who come under the instruction of the teachers, and for guidance in the matter refer teachers to an article published in the School Journal July 7 and 14, 1894, entitled Mind Evaluation for Teaching Purposes.
[Course of study adopted by the committee]
The President was then authorized to appoint a member for each district to call the teachers together as soon the books arrive, that work be begun. The following were chosen: – For Wailuku, Miss Cunningham; Hana, Mr. Kaiwiaia; Makawao, Mr. W.C. Crook; Lahaina, Mr. O. Abbot.
[Break in text.]
THE BEST PLAN
There are thousands of conscientious teachers who are doing their best to improve, but fail to reap the reward of well-intended effort by not pursuing the right course. Exclusive devotion to the study of the subject-matter of instruction makes them perambulating encyclopedias, perhaps, but it does not aid them to become better teachers. Neither can the copying of devices and manners of teaching produce any satisfactory results. The best plan is to take up the systematic study of the history, principles, methods, and civics of education, and supplement that by critical observation of the school-room practice of other teachers and the reading of sound inspiring educational journals. The best results may be obtained by forming a class of those who are willing to take up the systematic investigation of the foundations of educational work, even if there are but two or three for the start; others will gradually join in when they become aware of the immense profit derived from it. –THE TEACHERS’ INSTITUTE
In this first edition, it is clear that the publication is invitational, rather than prescriptive. It invites teachers to be both philosophical and scientific in their thinking about teaching and learning. It encourages them to ask questions (e.g. “What purpose do you expect your work to accomplish, and what bearing has your ultimate aim upon your work today?”). It also calls on teachers to personally and socially construct their own professional programs of study. This includes the suggestion to read and research “experts” of the time, and in later issues, study the cultural practices of Native Hawaiians (for example) to learn more about how to use “nature study” to teach science (for example). It also encourages teachers to participate in collaborative and discussion-based reading circles for the purpose of socially constructing ideas about educational theory and practice. The publication gives teachers suggestions for how they might design systems and protocols for observing children and studying schools. Additionally, it compels teachers to network themselves with other educators so that they can grow the progressive education movement and give more students access to this approach to schooling. Beyond the first issue, the volumes to follow explore a broad range of topics and dive deeper into more particular areas of study (e.g. child study, nature study, reading, school libraries, etc.). With more time, I hope to dig into some of these issues in blog posts to follow.
In sum, The Progressive Educator, “as its masthead declared, was ‘devoted to the theory and art of teaching with special reference to the educational problems confronting teachers of the Hawaiian Islands’” (McEwan, 2015, p. 6). It was unique when compared to other progressive education publications of the time because it was both written by and for progressive educators in Hawai‘i. Ultimately it became a critical tool for growing progressive education in the islands and a voice for sharing Hawai‘i’s home grown brand of progressive education with the world. It spread Townsend’s passion for creating schools that embodied the spirit of “dynamic realism” and ultimately contributed to the manifestation of a “revitalized curriculum and teaching corps” (Wist, 1940, p. 4). Today, along with other primary sources like Townsend’s unpublished biography, the preserved copies of The Progressive Educator serve as historical records of what progressive educators of the time were thinking about generally, and more specifically, who Towsnsend was as a progressive educator of his time.
Reflecting on H.S. Townsend and Lessons for Today
I have to admit–as I began to dig deeper into Townsend’s writings and the unbelievable influence he had on the advancement of progressive education in Hawai‘i, he started to reach legendary, if not idolatry status. I wondered: if Townsend had remained in power, would our educational norms, practices, and systems look different than they are today? Would progressive education be the status quo in Hawai‘i; the right of all children in state, rather than a privilege? Would we have more diverse voices to help shape the future of the ongoing progressive education movement? While the evidence suggests that the answers to these questions would be yes, I also discovered that–just like the rest of us–Townsend was a complex human, full of convictions and contradictions (highlighted in italics below) that both shaped and were shaped by the events of the time period he lived in.
Above all, the historical record makes clear that Townsend believed in the promise and potential of progressive philosophy and pedagogy, and went to great lengths to ensure every single teacher in Hawai‘i was supported and had access to the highest quality progressive education professional development. The publication of The Progressive Educator is a case in point. However, there are also many more examples. Take Townsend’s first hand account of traveling to the (extremely) remote north side of Moloka‘i to visit and support the educators there who had participated in his progressive education summer school programs.
The genuine pleasure of seeing the manifest results of the work…as witness the cases of the two schools on the windward side of Molokai, a one-room school at Pelekunu and another at Wailau…I found myself, with a guide…at the top of a precipitous decline of some twenty-five hundred feet, looking down upon a bank of clouds which obscured everything below a level of some two thousand feet…Thinking it undesirable to contemplate the length of the proposed descent, I responded with, “E hele kaua.” [Let us go.] Whereupon he got down upon all fours and backed over the top of the cliff, holding on to sundry roots of bushes clinging to the side of the cliff. I did the same…At Pelekunu I found the teacher, whom I had met at both Summer Schools, and was pleased to find indications that he had not attended in vain. This was my pleasure, as he had had as little assistance as any teacher in the whole service. The school was simply out of the class of anything which I had even hoped to find. The people of Pelekunu spared no pains to make me know that my visit was appreciated, informing later that this was the first time the Inspector General had visited their school for eighteen years. (Townsend,1937, pp. 58 - 62)
As if descending the Kalaupapa trail (26 switchbacks with a nearly 2,000 foot elevation change over 3.5 miles) to support progressive educators in rural school districts is not enough evidence of Townsend’s convictions, the summer schools themselves are a monumental testament to his efforts.
Led by the “leaders among leaders” of the American progressive education movement (e.g. Francis Parker and John Dewey), the summer schools not only educated teachers about progressive philosophy and pedagogy, they informed the community at-large about this new approach to education. Here is a snapshot of Townsend’s account of Francis Parker’s first seminar at one of the summer school programs:
Col. Parker came, and, like the warrior of old, he saw and he conquered. The opening session in Progress Hall far exceeded its capacity, the men who proposed that I pay the rental if my judgment proved false being on the stage…The President of the “Republic” and other notables being present…Since large numbers of citizens not directly connected with the schools were present, Col. Parker was given an opportunity to impress them with the importance of his presence. (Townsend, 1937, p. 67)
The fervor and excitement of what was happening in Hawai‘i’s public schools at the time of Townsend’s leadership is palpable. Educators and community members alike were invested in the progressive education initiative of the republic, and this yielded positive results with teachers and students. As Townsend recounts, “when Miss Cooke [from the Francis Parker School] had completed her tour of the world, she took pains to write me that she had not encountered such enthusiasm anywhere in her tour as Honolulu, and, she added, it was easy to see the source of this enthusiasm. I think she referred to me, and I accepted the compliment…(Townsend, 1937, p. 80). To give credit where credit is due–Townsend’s leadership created a buzz in the public schools, authentically spreading progressive education across the islands.
Townsend also loved Hawai‘i, and advocated for a progressive education that was uniquely suited for the islands. As a consequence he put Hawai‘i on the map as a progressive education destination. One example is the fact that Townsend was invited by the President of the National Education Association (NEA) to give a keynote at an annual gathering. In front of a crowd of 6,000 people, he addressed the NEA general assembly in Los Angles, California. A personal reflection and selection from his remarks given on the day demonstrate his bold willingness to speak out about the unfolding politics, a hot-button issue, between Hawai‘i and the United States:
It was a common saying in America that we ought to be very tolerant in our dealings with the Hawaiians, and I had even heard it in Los Angeles. But I had written in my address before leaving Hawaii a fling that, “Who are we that we should presume to tolerate this remnant of the people to whom God gave those fair isles, fresh from His creative hands, and who for fifty generations have known no other home?” When I came to that passage, feeling a bit dramatic, I dropped my paper to my side and…sent my voice careering down among those thousands, in a manner which brought the biggest round of applause I had ever received…the next day I learned that I had been taken for a Hawaiian reading the white man a curtain lecture…My whole address as a whole supported [the idea]..that the people of the United States should let the people of Hawaii work out their own problems, though I had only encouragement for those ambitious to help us work out our problem. We needed their help, and I was not at all averse to saying no. But we did not need their domination. (Townsend, 1937, p. 86)
He was clearly dedicated to advancing progressive education–for the citizens of Hawai‘i, by the citizens of Hawai‘i.
Townsend, working alongside generous funders like the Castles, established Hawai‘i as a hub for progressive education experimentation and movement building. Their efforts were bolstered by the visits from heavy weights of the time like John Dewey, Francis Parker, Flora Cooke, and Zonia Barber. As Wist points out, “the mere fact of Dewey’s presence was of itself an evidence of the fact that Hawai‘i was in the progressive educational ‘spotlight’” (Townsend, 1937, p. 82). The icing on the cake–right before Townsend was ousted from his position as lead educator in the territory–was that the Hawaiian public education system was recognized with the top prize, alongside New York and Massachusetts, at the Paris Centennial Exposition. Townsend concluded, “now I could look any teacher in the face and say, ‘We were on the right track’” (Townsend, 1937, p. 89).
With all that said, Townsend was a self-described “American” educator” whose educational leadership was shaped by bias and prejudice. His predispositions directed how he took sides in the “political unrest and disturbance [that] culminat[ed] in the annexation of Hawai‘i to the United States” (Wist in Townsend, p. 91). Wist summarizes it well:
The history of Hawaii is replete with interesting paradoxes. One of these was the Americanization of educational practices on the advance of the annexation of the Islands to the United States. By the time Henry S. Towsnend arrived in Hawaii in 1881, this process was well underway…Public education was destined to play a part in this evolutionary development…Towsnend did not hold himself aloof from the political scene–far from it. He was an active participant–one of the revolutionaries, if you please. If he ever considered himself anything else than an American educator, utilizing his position as such in the promotion of an American program of education and in laying the foundations for Americanization in a political sense, it does not appear in his autobiographical sketch. (p. 91)
In addition to the commentary by Wist, there was an article I found in The Progressive Educator that corroborated this sentiment. Townsend (1895) wrote:
The edict has gone forth, and it is the edict of Fate that the passive Hawaiian must adapt himself to the active systems of the West or go down. It is the duty of the schools to do their part in adapting him. Such a problem has not confronted education hitherto. A system calculated to solve this problem must be made upon the spot. We cannot import it. It does not now exist. That such a system can not be made off-hand is evident. But certain outline principles which must guide in its formation may be formulated with safety. (The Progressive Educator, 1895, Vol 1. No. 4)
These excerpts make clear that Townsend had biases and prejudices. Ultimately, they had an influence on his philosophy and pedagogy, and although he was a progressive educator of his time, a number of his beliefs and practices are certainly not aligned to the social justice aims of the progressive education movement of today. “To stamp Townsend as a progressive in the modern sense, would perhaps be far-fetched. His work in Hawaii came at a time when the pioneers in this movement were themselves feeling their way” (Wist in Townsend, 1937, p. 91) and they had not yet found a pathway for promoting diversity, equity, and justice in schools and society at-large.
Before I conclude with some lessons for the current moment, it is important to note that despite Townsend’s allegiance to “America” and his dedication to promoting both an American run government and an American program of education in the islands, he was eventually ousted from top office because of his progressive leaning approach. Wist (1937) explains, “no satisfactory explanation of this change is to be found in Hawaiiana literature of the period, in light of Townsend’s work and recognition in the United States.” However, if we analyze what transpired with historical perspective it becomes clear that “Townsend was regarded by many as a visionary, and as such somewhat dangerous. The type of educational program for which he stood was anything but typical of American practice at the beginning of the present century” (Wist in Towsnend, p. 87) and therefore not aligned to the conservative goals of Hawai‘i’s new leadership. On the contrary, they wanted a superintendent who would “implement an aggressive Americanization campaign in the territory’s public schools…justifying America’s presence in the minds of the local population and convincing a skeptical nation that Hawai‘i was American” (Americanization Through the School System, 2023). This is the interesting culmination of my reflection on Townsend’s convictions and contradictions–his vision for schooling in an American run democracy would guarantee free public education for all, value the whole child, engage multiple perspectives, practice experiential learning, promote agency and voice, adopt a Hawaiian approach to nature study, encourage freedom of independent thought and speech, and ensure equal access to high quality and rigorous academic programs of study. Unfortunately, this was not the same vision that the people in power had for public education in the newly established American territory.
Possible Lessons for Today?
Hawaiian educational history records an abrupt change under the Territorial form of government. For a period of two decades–a period during which the philosophy of John Dewey was making ever deeper inroads into educational practices elsewhere–the history of public education in Hawai‘i reflects little response to the philosophy of experimentalism. Townsend…was forced to give way to conservative leadership. Public education in Hawai‘i, during the first two decades under the Territorial government, was carried on in a pattern of extreme formalism. (Wist, 1940, p.6 cited in McEwan, 2015, p.)
As the quote above alludes, Townsend made great strides in ensuring that all students in Hawai‘i had access to a progressive education. However, as soon as he was removed from a position of power, many of the advances he made to promote progressive philosophy and pedagogy across the islands were reversed. This makes me wonder: What critical lessons from history can modern progressive educators take from Townsend’s time at the top as well as his sudden departure? How can history’s lessons inform current efforts being made to systemically grow the modern progressive education movement and increase access to progressive schools and educational experiences? What might we take away from Townsend’s many accomplishments? What might we be wary of and aim not to repeat?
The following is a list of my initial thoughts and reflections:
A champion at the top. Critical to establishing, growing, and sustaining progressive education philosophy and practice in schools and larger systems of education is the need for a progressive education “champion” at the top. As the historical record proves, Townsend’s time as lead educator in the islands led to rapid advances in progressive education and his removal halted the forward momentum. While the educational philosophies and pedagogies of individuals should not depend on a leader who shares the same values and practices, it is clear from Townsend’s tenure that alignment of the two enable progressive education to flourish.
Ongoing professional development. One of the keys to Townsend’s success was the system he established for providing educators with regularly occurring ongoing professional development. Of additional importance was the fact the professional development opportunities he provided were set up in such a way that teachers could socially construct their own progressive philosophy and pedagogy over time (e.g. provided resources discussed in reading circles). Too often, teachers and administrators receive “one and done” professional development “trainings,” which might inspire some short term changes in practice, but rarely give educators the support they need to make sure these changes last the test of time. This traditional professional development model is contrary to the reality that education is a field that must constantly be updated and revised in relation to our changing world, and that teachers need continued education to keep up with the changes. Townsend’s ongoing publication of The Progressive Educator, the regular meetings of the highly localized teacher reading circles, and the annual progressive education summer schools (for both novice and experienced teachers) is a great example of what a more progressive system-wide approach to teacher professional development could look like. Our challenge today: create more progressive education professional development models like Townsend’s, which operate on the underlying principle that learning occurs on a regular basis over time and educators need established ongoing support to ensure their continued growth.
Progressive education is inextricably linked to American history, including dominant oppressive ideologies. White supremacy, racism, sexism, elitism, xenophobia, transphobia, ableism, and the list goes on have all shaped and continue to shape public policy and popular culture in the United States. Therefore, as a movement that has grown out of the history of America, progressive education and progressive educators have not been immune to holding the oppressive prejudices and biases that have often been representative of the dominant culture in the United States. The takeaway–just because one identifies as a progressive educator doesn’t mean they automatically embody and/or practice social justice education. This was the case with Townsend. His American biases and prejudices shaped not only the work he did as a progressive educator, but the curricular decisions and perhaps the educational policies he made. While this is not the case with everyone, it is important to remember that while the current progressive education movement is deeply dedicated to enacting a social justice education, progressive educators of today must continue to observe, study, and work on their own biases and prejudices as a part of their ongoing progressive education journey.
Democratic and constructivist networks are needed. Townsend’s professional development model also demonstrated that creating networks of educators engaging in dialogue and discourse about the experts of the time helped teachers in Hawai‘i move towards a more place-based, contextualized, and socially just form of progressive education. A great example of this is the “Nature Study” articles that were published in The Progressive Educator. Alongside articles published by lead psychologists from the continental United States and Europe, they were written by local authors who invited teachers to consider a Hawaiian epistemology when thinking about how they design science lessons. They offered Hawai‘i’s multicultural population a Hawaiian worldview, which calls on all humans to be “interested and intelligent student[s] of nature.” As a result, Hawaiian place-based nature study became a foundation of teachers’ progressive practices in Hawai‘i at the time and into the future. It is apparent that place-based, contextualized, and more socially just forms of progressive education were able to develop and flourish in Hawai‘i because educators were being provided with professional development resources that better reflected the students they served. In addition, educators of diverse backgrounds were having the opportunity to read those resources, engage in dialogue, and think together in communities of inquiry. More democratic and constructivist teacher networks like these are needed today.
Keep an eye on the ousting. As I’ve shared in a previous blog, both the advancement and restrictions placed on the American progressive education movement are often correlated to the political atmosphere of the times. This was seen in the rise and fall of the Progressive Education Association (PEA). The PEA was primarily dedicated to the spread of progressive education in American public schools from 1919 to 1955. This included expanding the reach of progressive education philosophy and pedagogy and taking a stand on social and political issues of the day. Amidst the backdrop of McCarthyism and the Red Scare, some attribute the 1955 shuttering of the organization to shifting cultural and political trends including rising conservatism and anti-intellectualism. Up until that point, calling yourself a progressive educator or a progressive school did not have serious political implications, but as soon as it did, educators stopped using the word to describe themselves and their institutions. This is the very same thing that happened with Townsend. As soon as the dominant political group in Hawai‘i decided they needed to use the public school system as a tool for “Americanizing” the general population in the new territory, Townsend and his progressive education philosophy and pedagogy were ousted. While progressive educators of today should not live in fear, they need to be akamai (a.k.a. smart, intelligent, and clever) about how they weather and navigate the changing political landscape, keeping the ethos of the movement as their North Star, all in the service of children and a better future.
At the conclusion of this blog, I’m left with so many thoughts and feelings. First of all, I’m proud that there are deep links between the evolution of the American progressive education movement and Hawai‘i’s unique history. I believe this is due to “Native Hawaiians’ zeal for learning…[the] ali‘i’s inspired vision for their citizens to be educated” (Silva, 2015, p.33), and the hui of kamaʻāina who had the means and connections to support experiments in progressive social change and education in Hawai‘i. The scholar Hunter McEwan (2015) made the claim that at the time of Dewey’s visits “Hawai‘i was specifically well disposed to the implementation of [progressive] educational theory” (McEwan , 2015, p. 1), and my research has assured me that progressive education is indeed in our collective DNA. I am also longing with need and desire to learn more about H.S. Townsend and the progressive education movement he was growing in the Hawaiian Islands from 1881-1901. Unread issues of The Progressive Educator call to me and I’m eager to see what they reveal about the unique take on progressive philosophy that was developing in the islands. I can’t wait to apply what I learn to the work contemporary progressive educators are doing in Hawai‘i today. I also have a deep sense of gratitude because I know the progressive education I experienced as a child at Hanahau‘oli School was the direct result of Townsend’s efforts. His willingness to take a risk and introduce new experimental ideas about teaching and learning to the people of Hawai‘i has definitely shaped the person I’ve become. Finally, I feel the spirit of Townsend cheering us on–he’s saying, be brave, be innovative, and most importantly be bold when your ideas might challenge the establishment (or the growing establishment) of the time you are living in. H.S. Townsend was Hawai‘i’s avant-garde progressive education leader, and now we must carry the movement forward.
Works Cited:
Americanization through the school system. (2023, September 16). Retrieved from: https://coe.hawaii.edu/territorial-history-of-schools/americanization-through-the-school-system/
The Lahaina Restoration Foundation. (2023, October 23). Hale pa’i/printing museum: house of printing first Hawaiian language newspaper. Retrieved from: https://lahainarestoration.org/hale-pai-museum/#:~:text=Lahainaluna%20survives%20today%20as%20Lahaina's,a%20small%20thatched%2Droof%20hut
McEwan, H. (2015). Introduction to this issue. Educational Perspectives, 47(1 & 2), 1-10.
Silva, A. (2015). Dewey in Hawai‘i--1899. Educational Perspectives, 47(1 & 2), 28 - 33
Townsend, H.S. (1899). Educational progress. In T. G. Thrum, Ed., Hawaiian Almanac and Annual (pp. 162 - 164).
Wist, B. O. (1940) A Century of Public Education in Hawaii. Hawaii Educational Review.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Dr. Amber Strong Makaiau is a Specialist at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Director of Curriculum and Research at the Uehiro Academy for Philosophy and Ethics in Education, Director of the Hanahau‘oli School Professional Development Center, and Co-Director of the Progressive Philosophy and Pedagogy MEd Interdisciplinary Education, Curriculum Studies program. A former Hawai‘i State Department of Education high school social studies teacher, her work in education is focused around promoting a more just and equitable democracy for today’s children. Dr. Makaiau lives in Honolulu where she enjoys spending time in the ocean with her husband and two children.
